ECS
From the ECS State Policy Database
2002 State Policies / Activities

Education Commission of the States • 700 Broadway, Suite 810 • Denver, CO 80203-3442 • 303.299.3600 • fax 303.296.8332 • www.ecs.org

The following summary includes policies enacted in 2002. This database is made possible by your state's fiscal support of the Education Commission of the States (ECS). Most entries are legislative, although rules/regulations and executive orders that make substantive changes are included. Every effort is made to collect the latest available version of policies; in some instances, recent changes might not be reflected. For expediency purposes minimal attention has been paid to style (capitalization, punctuation) and format. To view the documents, click on the blue triangle next to the topic of interest. To view all, press the button located at the top labeled "Expand All."

Please cite use of the database as: Education Commission of the States (ECS) State Policy Database, retrieved [date].

State Status/Date Level Summary
+ Accountability
+ Accountability--Accreditation
+ Accountability--Measures/Indicators
+ Accountability--Reporting Results
+ Accountability--Rewards
+ Accountability--Sanctions/Interventions
+ Accountability--Sanctions/Interventions--No Pass No Drive
+ Accountability--Sanctions/Interventions--Takeovers
+ Accountability--School Improvement
+ Adult Basic Education
+ Assessment
+ Assessment--Accommodations
+ Assessment--End-of-Course
+ Assessment--Formative/Interim
+ Assessment--High Stakes/Competency
+ Assessment--NAEP (NAEP Results and NAEP Organization)
+ At-Risk (incl. Dropout Prevention)
+ At-Risk (incl. Dropout Prevention)--Alternative Education
+ At-Risk (incl. Dropout Prevention)--Drugs/Alcohol
+ Attendance
+ Attendance--Truancy
+ Background Checks
+ Bilingual/ESL
+ Business Involvement
+ Career/Technical Education
+ Cheating
+ Choice of Schools--Charter Schools
+ Choice of Schools--Charter Schools--Charter Districts
+ Choice of Schools--Charter Schools--Finance
+ Choice of Schools--Choice/Open Enrollment
+ Choice of Schools--Magnet or Specialized Schools
+ Choice of Schools--Tax Credits
+ Choice of Schools--Vouchers
+ Civic Education
+ Civic Education--Character Education
+ Civic Education--Pledge of Allegiance
+ Class Size
+ Curriculum
+ Curriculum--Arts Education
+ Curriculum--Core Curriculum
+ Curriculum--Drivers Education
+ Curriculum--Environmental Education
+ Curriculum--Family Living Education
+ Curriculum--Financial Literacy/Economics Ed.
+ Curriculum--Foreign Language/Sign Language
+ Curriculum--Health/Nutrition Education
+ Curriculum--Language Arts--Writing/Spelling
+ Curriculum--Mathematics
+ Curriculum--Multicultural
+ Curriculum--Physical Education
+ Curriculum--Science
+ Curriculum--Sex Education
+ Curriculum--Social Studies/History
+ Data-Driven Improvement
+ Demographics--Enrollments
+ Desegregation
+ Economic/Workforce Development
+ Education Research
+ Equity
+ Federal
+ Finance
+ Finance--Adequacy/Core Cost
+ Finance--Bonds
+ Finance--District
+ Finance--Does Money Matter?
+ Finance--Equity
+ Finance--Facilities
+ Finance--Funding Formulas
+ Finance--Local Foundations/Funds
+ Finance--Lotteries
+ Finance--Private Giving
+ Finance--Resource Efficiency
+ Finance--State Budgets/Expenditures
+ Finance--Student Fees
+ Finance--Taxes/Revenues
+ Finance--Taxes/Revenues--Alternative Revenues
+ Governance
- Governance--School Boards
MASigned into law 12/2002P-12Requires school committee members [local school board members] to complete at least 8 hours of orientation concerning their responsibilities, and within no more than a year of their initial election or appointment. Specifies subject areas in which members must undergo training. http://www.state.ma.us/legis/laws/seslaw02/sl020416.htm
Title: H.B. 783
Source: StateNet

IDApproved by voters 11/2002P-12Reinstating term limits for elected state, county, municipal and school district officials through ballot access restrictions. (http://www.idsos.state.id.us/elect/inits/02init06.htm)
Title: Proposition 2
Source: Idaho Division of Elections Web site

NJRule Adoption 11/2002P-12Clarifies, establishes and recodifies rules regarding complaint procedures with respect to the code of ethics for school board members. Adds a new complaint form for complaints alleging only a violation of the Code of Ethics and sets forth procedures to expedite the processing of complaints to allow the Commission to decide whether a violation exists within the 90 days prescribed by the newly enacted statute. NEW JERSEY REG 15283 (SN)
Title: NJAC 6A:28-1.2, 1.9 thru 1.16
Source: StateNet

FLSigned into law 08/2002P-12Removes provision mandating that school boards fully fund a 5% reserve for all instructional and administrative staff. See bill section 697, page 1298, line 28, ff. Also bars local board member from hiring or appointing a relative to work under his or her direct supervision. See bill section 698, page 1303, line 6 ff. According to state legislative summary, "[Clarifies] that teaching experience applies to in-state and out-of-state public school teaching experience. If employees with unsatisfactory evaluations request transfer, requires superintendent to annually report to department on employees transferred, where transferred and what remediation" was undertaken. http://www.leg.state.fl.us/data/session/2002E/Senate/bills/billtext/pdf/s0020Eer.pdf
Title: S.B. 20E
Source: http://www.leg.state.fl.us

CAVetoed 07/2002P-12
Community College
Increases the maximum amount of compensation a county board of education, the governing board of a school district or community college district, would be authorized to compensate a member of a board for attending board meetings. Deletes those provisions that authorize an action to increase the compensation of a board member pursuant to those provisions to be rejected by a majority of the voters in that school district, county or community college district.
Title: S.B. 1308
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

OHSigned into law 06/2002P-12Increases the maximum compensation for members of school district boards of education and educational service center governing boards; permits compensation to members for attendance at training programs.
Title: S.B. 187
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

DESigned into law 05/2002P-12Relates to school boards of reorganized school districts; requires quorums for a meeting to be a majority of the board members. http://www.legis.state.de.us/LIS/LIS141.NSF/vwLegislation/
Title: H.B. 218
Source: www.legis.state.de.us

FLSigned into law 05/2002P-12Abolishes statutory salary scale for local board members, and replaces with policy authorizing boards to establish own pay in public meeting. See New Section 1001.395 (see bill section 52, page 91, line 24). http://www.leg.state.fl.us/data/session/2002E/Senate/bills/billtext/pdf/s0020Eer.pdf
Title: S.B. 20E
Source: www.leg.state.fl.us

FLSigned into law 05/2002P-12Requires auditor general to conduct financial audits of the accounts and records of all local boards in counties with populations of 150,000 rather than 125,000, according to the latest 10-year census. According to legislative report, "The number of school districts undergoing audits is increased by five." See bill section 880, page 1621, line 12 ff: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/data/session/2002E/Senate/bills/billtext/pdf/s0020Eer.pdf
Title: S.B. 20E
Source: http://www.leg.state.fl.us

GASigned into law 05/2002P-12Creates the Atlanta Board of Education Charter Review Commission to undertake a study of the conditions, needs, issues and problems arising from the creation of the Atlanta Board of Education to examine the length of terms of officers, the board's reporting relationship of the Comptroller and internal audit financing and the structure of investigations for alleged ethics violations. http://www.legis.state.ga.us/Legis/2001_02/fulltext/sr608.htm
Title: S.R. 608
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

GASigned into law 05/2002P-12Changes the compensation of the members of the board of education. http://www.legis.state.ga.us/Legis/2001_02/fulltext/hb1676.htm
Title: H.B. 1676
Source: www.legis.state.ga.us

GASigned into law 05/2002P-12Authorizes local boards to pay additional costs imposed on certain members as a result of the board's decision to provide certain state health insurance benefits to school board members; provides for the use of local tax funds for such purpose. Permits spouses and dependents of board members to be included in members' plans. http://www.legis.state.ga.us/Legis/2001_02/fulltext/hb1121.htm
Title: H.B. 1121
Source: www.legis.state.ga.us

MDSigned into law 05/2002P-12Establishes appointed New Prince George's County Board of Education and requirements for membership. Provides for compensation of board members. Allows for nonvoting student member. Establishes Chief Executive Officer as executive officer, secretary, and treasurer of county board. Establishes duties of CEO of the board in Prince George's County. Creates selection process for superintendent for Prince George's County. Establishes office, duties and selection process of chief academic officer, chief financial officer and chief accountability officer in Prince George's County. Establishes Parent and Community Advisory Board in Prince George's County; requires regular board and CEO consultation with the Parent and Community Advisory Board. Requires Prince George's County CEO to develop comprehensive master plan, for the board to review, approve, and begin implementation of by November 1, 2002. Requires state board and state superintendent to review and approve master plan. Establishes numerous required areas the master plan must address, including curriculum, professional development, personnel evaluation, addressing the needs of at-risk students and closing the achievement gap. Requires CEO and board to publish annual report addressing specified areas. Allows Prince George's County board or designated committee to hear appeal of CEO's decision on areas affecting specific student. Requires annual allocation of state and Prince George's County government funds through FY07 for public school construction projects. Makes project release for bidding contingent upon approval by the Interagency Committee on School Construction. Changes borders of Prince George's County. Establishes system for election, removal and compensation of Prince George's County board members, 5 representing local areas and 4 at large. Allows for voting student member; student member prohibited from voting on specified administrative and personnel issues. Terms of appointed New Prince George's County board members to expire December 3, 2006. Requires chief academic officer of Prince George's County to devise plan for teacher participation in development of curriculum, instruction, and professional development. Provides for supplementary annual state funding for Prince George's County in FYs 04-07 contingent upon and to the degree of achievement of benchmarks and outcomes in the master plan approved by the state superintendent and state board. Requires New Prince George's County Board to locate interim CEO by August 15, 2002 and permanent CEO by January 1, 2003. Requires consultant to perform comprehensive review of Prince George's County system and new board by June 1, 2006, including review of educational and management reforms made by new board. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb0949e.rtf
Title: H.B. 949
Source: mlis.state.md.us

MDSigned into law 05/2002P-12Requires that a question be placed on the ballot in Dorchester County at the November general election of 2002 to determine voters' attitudes towards potentially changing the method of selecting members of the Dorchester County board from governor-appointed to locally-elected. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/sb/sb0700t.rtf
Title: S.B. 700
Source: mlis.state.md.us

MDSigned into law 05/2002P-12Increases maximum of aggregate principal amount of bonds outstanding that Baltimore district may hold from $25 million to $75 million. Require Baltimore board and CEO to ensure increased community involvement and outreach in support of the city's public schools. Deletes 1997 section requiring adoption and implementation of transition plan. Replaces with requirement that by June 1, 2002, Baltimore district CEO submit 5-year comprehensive master plan to board for review and approval by August 30, 2002 and subsequent review and approval by state board and superintendent. Requires CEO or designee to consult with specified others, including teachers, students and parents during the development of the master plan. Requires master plan to be updated and submitted for state board and superintendent review and approval on annual basis. Establishes areas which master plan must address. Requires department and Baltimore school system to jointly develop a principal development initiative pairing distinguished principals from outside the system and action support teams with principals in training in Baltimore. Addresses minimum appropriations to Baltimore Public School System. Requires consultant to evaluate the Baltimore City-State Partnership and the reform initiatives of the Baltimore City Public School System by December 1, 2006, and the board of commissioners and the state board to report to the general assembly on a review of the evaluation by January 15, 2007. Requires chief officers of Baltimore Public Schools to meet on at least a quarterly basis with the Special Master assigned to the case, after 6 of which meetings the CEO and the state superintendent may adjust the communication schedule. Requires state and Baltimore agencies to communicate on at least a quarterly basis on facilities planning in the Baltimore Public Schools, including on capital improvement program issues. Requires transfer of certain real property assets from Baltimore City Public School System to Baltimore City Board of Commissioners. Through June 30, 2009, permits Board of Public Works to approve state funding for capital improvements to Baltimore public school buildings deeded to Baltimore board or mayor and city council of Baltimore. Requires city to continue cooperation with school system to eliminate environmental hazards in the school system. Permits funds appropriated for the Baltimore City-State Partnership to be used to support the principal development initiative. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb0853e.rtf
Title: H.B. 853
Source: mlis.state.md.us

SCSigned into law 05/2002P-12Provides that the Department of Education must keep a record of the trustees who successfully complete an orientation program within 1 year of taking office; makes provisions regarding charter schools. Provides that a trustee or county board member who fails to successfully complete the orientation is subject to suspension from office.
Title: H.B. 4419
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

GASigned into law 04/2002P-12Provides for the compensation of the members of the Schley County board of education and reimbursement of related expenses. http://www.legis.state.ga.us/Legis/2001_02/versions/hb1593_LC_28_0649_a_2.htm
Title: H.B. 1748
Source: www.legis.state.ga.us

LASigned into law 04/2002P-12Authorizes the Zacary and Baker school boards to borrow money sufficient to meet its budget and expenditures for FY 2002-2003. http://www.legis.state.la.us/leg_docs/021ES/CVT1/OUT/0000JHZE.PDF
Title: S.B. 110A
Source: www.legis.state.la.us

MDSigned into law 04/2002P-12Alters term limit on consecutive terms of a member of Calvert County Board of Education; alters the compensation received by the president of the Board and other members; provides that the Act does not apply to salary or compensation of incumbent members of the Board; alters the starting date of student members. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb0267t.rtf
Title: H.B. 267
Source: mlis.state.md.us

MDSigned into law 04/2002P-12Requires that a member elected to the Carroll County Board of Education begin the member's term on the first Monday in December immediately following the member's election. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb1400e.rtf
Title: H.B. 1400
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

MDSigned into law 04/2002P-12Alters the compensation received by an elected member of the Montgomery County Board of Education; alters the additional compensation to which the President of the Board is entitled; provides health insurance and other fringe benefits to elected members of the Board; establishes a scholarship for the student member of the Board. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb0706t.rtf
Title: H.B. 706
Source: mlis.state.md.us

MDSigned into law 04/2002P-12Redistricts the Board of Education districts of Montgomery County; alters compensation received by the president; does not apply to incumbent president. http://mlis.state.md.us/2002rs/bills/hb/hb0712t.rtf
Title: H.B. 712
Source: mlis.state.md.us

MEPublic Law No. 04/2002P-12Relates to the local governance of school administrative units; clarify that the primary role and responsibilities of school board members are to serve as policymakers for the school administrative units and that the role and responsibilities of school superintendents are to serve as education leaders and administrators for the school administrative units.
Title: S.B. 791
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

MISigned into law 04/2002P-12Revises the petition signature and filing fee requirements for a candidate for school board election according to population as of the most recent census.
Title: S.B. 385
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

MSSigned into law 04/2002P-12Allows any local school district to fund extended day and -year programs for kindergarten or compulsory age students through sources other than the adequate education program. Permits local boards to expend funds from any available sources to help defray costs of student field trips to public or private nonprofit museums. Allows local boards to enter into contracts or agreements with public or private individuals or entities to provide staff training or development. Requires School Executive Management Institute to issue certificates of completion to those school board members who complete the basic education course within the institute. Deletes language relating to required content and location of local board member basic training courses. Transfers responsibility for issuance of school board member continuing education courses from institute to state school boards association. Requires state school boards association to report annually to state board and assembly education committee chairs on activites and provide evaluation of continuing education programs offered by the association each year. Eliminates language mandating content of continuing education courses conducted by School Executive Management Institute for elementary and secondary school principals. Eliminates language requiring board members to file annually a certificate of completion of continuing education course conducted by postsecondary institutions but maintains same requirement for courses conducted by Mississippi School Boards Association. http://billstatus.ls.state.ms.us/documents/2002/html/HB/0400-0499/HB0494SG.htm
Title: H.B. 494
Source: billstatus.ls.state.ms.us

TNSigned into law 04/2002P-12Provides that the Director of Schools rather than the board of education would have the authority to transfer teachers from one
position to another at his or her option. http://www.legislature.state.tn.us/bills/currentga/Chapter/PC0586.pdf
Title: S.B. 2175
Source: http://www.legislature.state.tn.us

IASigned into law 03/2002P-12Relates to the authority of the board of directors of a school district to change the number of directors or the method of election of directors following a federal decennial census.
Title: H.B. 2183
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

SCVetoed 03/2002P-12Provides for the election of school trustees in partisan instead of nonpartisan elections beginning in 2002 and for the nomination, terms, and election procedures of candidates for these offices.
Title: S.B. 933
Source: http://www.scstatehouse.net/

TNSigned into law 03/2002P-12Increases maximum size of county school boards from 10 to 12 members.
Title: S.B. 2018
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

VASigned into law 03/2002P-12Provides that any elected school board may pay each of its members an annual salary that is consistent with the salary procedures and no more than the salary limits provided for local governments.
Title: H.B. 1141
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

VASigned into law 03/2002P-12Makes the implementation of any superintendent resignation, retirement, or other financial package and contract negotiation or renegotiation by a school board whose members are elected in whole or in part and of which one or more member's term is to expire within three months of the board's vote on such action contingent upon approval of such package or contract negotiation by the newly constituted school board.
Title: H.B. 434, S.B. 439
Source: http://hod.state.va.us/welcome.htm

IDSigned into law 02/2002P-12Repeals Idaho's term limit law for federal, statewide elected executive officials, legislators, school district trustees and city and county elected officials.
Title: H.B. 425
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

SDSigned into law 02/2002P-12Allows districts to modify the size of board of directors.
Title: S.B. 57
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

ALSigned into law 01/2002P-12Provides for the election and operation of the Birmingham City Board of Education; provides for the election of the initial members of the board on a certain date.
Title: H.B. 135
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

MASigned into law 01/2002P-12Relates to the finances of regional school committees. Modifies language regarding the compensation of school board members. Regional school districts must be audited annually by an independent CPA, the results of which audit must be made public.
Title: H.B. 3071
Source: Lexis-Nexis/StateNet

+ Governance--School Boards--Training
+ Governance--Site-Based Management
+ Governance--State Boards/Chiefs/Agencies
+ Health
+ Health--Child Abuse
+ Health--Mental Health
+ Health--School Based Clinics or School Nurses
+ High School
+ High School--Advanced Placement
+ High School--Dual/Concurrent Enrollment
+ High School--Exit Exams
+ High School--GED (General Education Development)
+ High School--Graduation Requirements
+ High School--International Baccalaureate
+ Instructional Approaches--Grading Practices
+ Instructional Approaches--Homeschooling
+ Instructional Approaches--Official English
+ Instructional Approaches--Tracking/Ability Grouping
+ Integrated Services/Full-Service Schools
+ International Benchmarking
+ Leadership
+ Leadership--District Superintendent
+ Leadership--Principal/School Leadership--Certification and Licensure
+ Leadership--Principal/School Leadership--Compensation and Diversified Pay
+ Leadership--Principal/School Leadership--Evaluation and Effectiveness
+ Leadership--Principal/School Leadership--Preparation
+ Leadership--Principal/School Leadership--Recruitment and Retention
+ Middle School
+ Minority/Diversity Issues
+ Minority/Diversity Issues--African American
+ Minority/Diversity Issues--American Indian / Alaska Native / Native Hawaiian
+ Minority/Diversity Issues--Hispanic
+ No Child Left Behind
+ No Child Left Behind--Adequate Yearly Progress
+ No Child Left Behind--Assessment
+ No Child Left Behind--Choice/Transfer
+ No Child Left Behind--Consequences for Schools
+ No Child Left Behind--Report Cards
+ No Child Left Behind--School Support
+ No Child Left Behind--Supplemental Services
+ Online Learning--Digital/Blended Learning
+ Online Learning--Virtual Schools/Courses
+ P-16 or P-20
+ P-3
+ P-3 Child Care
+ P-3 Early Intervention (0-3)
+ P-3 Ensuring Quality
+ P-3 Family Involvement
+ P-3 Finance
+ P-3 Governance
+ P-3 Grades 1-3
+ P-3 Kindergarten--Full-Day Kindergarten
+ P-3 Preschool
+ P-3 Teaching Quality/Professional Development
+ Parent/Family
+ Parent/Family--Parent Rights
+ Postsecondary
+ Postsecondary Affordability--Financial Aid
+ Postsecondary Affordability--Tuition/Fees
+ Postsecondary Affordability--Tuition/Fees--Prepd/College Savings Plans
+ Postsecondary Affordability--Tuition/Fees--Undocumented Immigrants
+ Postsecondary Faculty
+ Postsecondary Faculty--Intellectual Property
+ Postsecondary Faculty--Tenure
+ Postsecondary Finance
+ Postsecondary Governance and Structures
+ Postsecondary Institutions--Community/Technical Colleges
+ Postsecondary Institutions--For-Profit/Proprietary
+ Postsecondary Participation--Access
+ Postsecondary Participation--Admissions Requirements
+ Postsecondary Participation--Affirmative Action
+ Postsecondary Participation--Outreach
+ Postsecondary Students--Disabled
+ Postsecondary Students--Minority
+ Private Schools
+ Privatization
+ Promotion/Retention
+ Public Involvement
+ Reading/Literacy
+ Religion
+ Religion--Prayer/Meditation
+ Scheduling/School Calendar
+ Scheduling/School Calendar--Extended Day Programs
+ Scheduling/School Calendar--Summer School
+ Scheduling/School Calendar--Year
+ Scheduling/School Calendar--Year Round
+ School Safety
+ School Safety--Bullying Prevention/Conflict Resolution
+ School Safety--Code of Conduct
+ School Safety--Expulsion/Suspension
+ School Safety--No Child Left Behind--Safe Schools
+ School Safety--Sexual Harassment and Assault
+ School Safety--Uniforms/Dress Codes
+ School/District Structure/Operations
+ School/District Structure/Operations--District Consolidation/Deconsolidation
+ School/District Structure/Operations--Facilities
+ School/District Structure/Operations--Food Service
+ School/District Structure/Operations--Libraries
+ School/District Structure/Operations--Personnel (Non-Teaching)
+ School/District Structure/Operations--School Size
+ School/District Structure/Operations--Transportation
+ Service-Learning
+ Special Education
+ Special Education--Finance
+ Special Education--Placement
+ Special Populations--Corrections Education
+ Special Populations--Gifted and Talented
+ Special Populations--Homeless Education
+ Standards
+ Standards--Implementation
+ State Longitudinal Data Systems
+ State Policymaking
+ State Policymaking--Politics
+ State Policymaking--Task Forces/Commissions
+ Student Achievement
+ Student Supports--Counseling/Guidance
+ Student Supports--Mentoring/Tutoring
+ Student Supports--Remediation
+ Students
+ Students--Athletics/Extracurricular Activities
+ Students--Employment
+ Students--Records/Rights
+ Teaching Quality
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--Alternative
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--Highly Qualified Teachers
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--Natl. Bd. for Prof. Teach. Stds.
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--Special Education
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--State Prof. Standards Bds.
+ Teaching Quality--Certification and Licensure--Substitute Teachers
+ Teaching Quality--Compensation and Diversified Pay
+ Teaching Quality--Compensation and Diversified Pay--Retirement/Benefits
+ Teaching Quality--Evaluation and Effectiveness
+ Teaching Quality--Induction Programs and Mentoring
+ Teaching Quality--Paraprofessionals
+ Teaching Quality--Preparation
+ Teaching Quality--Professional Development
+ Teaching Quality--Recruitment and Retention
+ Teaching Quality--Teacher Rights
+ Teaching Quality--Tenure or Continuing Contract
+ Teaching Quality--Unions/Collective Bargaining
+ Technology
+ Technology--Devices/Software/Hardware
+ Technology--Equitable Access
+ Technology--Funding Issues
+ Technology--Internet Safety
+ Technology--Teacher/Faculty Training
+ Textbooks and Open Source
+ Urban